Understanding the Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences, Peer-Violence Perpetration, and Gender Norms Among Very Young Adolescents in Indonesia: A Cross-Sectional Study

"Although unequal gender norms increase peer-violence perpetration among boys, they do not mediate/moderate the relationship between adversity and peer-violence perpetration."

Violence is not only driven by individual factors but is embedded in sociocultural influences that span from the immediate environment to broader societal forces. Norms valuing male toughness and authority have been well documented in relation to gender-based violence in adult populations but have not been thoroughly investigated in relation to other forms of violence. This study assesses the role of gender norms on the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and peer-violence perpetration among very young adolescents (VYAs) in three communities in Indonesia (Semarang, Denpasar, and Bandar Lampung), where data suggest that prevalence of violence perpetration ranges from 3.4% to 85%.

The baseline survey was conducted between August and October 2018 among 2,974 10- to 14-year-old participants (boys: 44.79%, girls: 55.21%) in schools serving low-income populations. Variables included:

• The dependent variable was peer-violence perpetration based on two questions: (i) During the last 6 months, have you bullied or threatened another boy or girl for any reason? and (ii) During the last 6 months, have you slapped, hit or otherwise physically hurt another boy or girl in a way they did not want?
• The main independent variable, ACE, was based on a 13-item measure including items about fear of physical abuse, fear of emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, sexual abuse, violence victimisation, parental substance abuse, parental emotional distress, domestic violence, parental incarceration, and household instability.
• The study included two measures of gender norm perceptions: the sexual double standard (SDS) scale (a 6-item scale) measuring the perception boys are rewarded for romantic relationship engagement, whereas girls are stigmatised or disadvantaged for the experience; and the gender stereotypical trait (GST) scale (a 7-item scale) measuring young people's perceptions of differential traits portraying boys as tough and girls as weak.

Less than one in five adolescents reported no history of ACE, while almost one-third were exposed to four or more ACE. Boys were more likely to report any ACE exposure (84.01% vs. 79.84% for girls) and to be victims of four or more ACEs (38.74% reported four or more ACEs vs. 28.14% of girls). Overall, 17.52% of the participants stated they had perpetrated peer-violence in the last 6 months, with boys more likely to engage in this behaviour than girls (24.17% vs. 12.12%; p = .001).

Adolescents who reported no exposure to ACE were more likely to hold gender-equal norms than peers who sustained childhood adversities. Thus, depending on the number of ACEs reported by boys, the proportion of boys scoring above the median (corresponding to more unequal norms) ranged from 47.42% to 61.82% on the SDS scale, and from 48.36% to 66.28% on the GST scale as the number of ACEs increased. Likewise, the proportion of girls scoring above the median (corresponding to more unequal views) ranged from 45.32% to 58.44% on the SDS scale, as the number of ACEs increased.

Gender norm perceptions did not moderate the relationship between ACE and peer-violence perpetration, but unequal perceptions of SDS were independently associated with peer-violence perpetration among boys but not girls (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.46, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.09-1.95). Other risk factors included lifetime tobacco use among boys and girls and lifetime alcohol use among boys. Protective factors included parental closeness among girls.

Thus, the results show that the boys in this study are significantly more exposed to childhood adversities than are girls, which may in part explain the sex differences that are seen in peer-violence perpetration. Consistent with studies linking hegemonic forms of masculinity to violence perpetration, the study found that more unequal perceptions of an SDS correlated with increased peer-violence perpetration for boys. The same was not true for stereotypical gender traits portraying boys as tough and girls as weak, which highlights the multifaceted nature of gender norm perceptions.

Reflecting on the findings, the researchers note that school bullying is normalised in Indonesia as, until recently, it was a tradition in many middle and high schools to initiate the freshmen class with a week of hazing. "The need to assert power and gain affiliation within peer network and the school climate that condones bullying might be the more relevant influences than gender unequal attitudes on peer-violence among adolescents."

Programmatic implications include the need to support young people who face adversities at a young age, to consider gender-transformative interventions that challenge notions of hypermasculinity, and to provide trauma-informed care to address the specific psychological and social needs of adolescents who face adversities. "Programs targeting ACE and gender norms which engage boys, girls, and families are more likely to be successful in reducing peer-violence perpetration and promoting gender equitable norms."